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Masalah Luaran Kaum Muslimin & Cabaran Kebudayaan Barat
Ulasan Sesi Worldview of Islam Intellectual Discourse Series (WISE) Sem 2 (2011)
Modul : 7 - Masalah Luaran Kaum Muslimin & Cabaran Kebudayaan Barat)
Penyampai : Dr. Mohd Farid Mohd Shahran
Tarikh / Masa : 7 & 14 Mei 2011 / 9.00 pagi – 1.00 tghri
Tempat : Institut Integriti Malaysia (IIM)
Pengulas : Mohammad Fazril Bin Mohd Saleh
“...mereka sedang mengekori hawa-nafsu kebudayaan Barat! Mereka membayangi Kebudayaan Barat dalam cara berfikir, dalam sikap beragama, dalam memahami nilai-nilai kebudayaan dan mengelirukan faham serta tujuan ilmu. Kepada kebudayaan Baratkah akan kita berlindung, akan kita memohon pertolongan, yang akan mencegah tindak-balasan Allah kelak? Waspadalah saudaraku Muslimin sekalian!”
(Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Risalah untuk Kaum Muslimin, halaman 18.)
Menurut Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (Al-Attas), kegentingan yang melanda umat Islam (Kaum Muslimin) dewasa ini bertitik tolak daripada dua bentuk cabaran utama yang saling berkait; (1) cabaran dalaman (masalah kekeliruan ilmu dan keruntuhan adab)[1], dan (2) cabaran luaran (cabaran kebudayaan Barat)[2]. Serangan-serangan pemikiran Barat terhadap kaum Muslimin menampakkan hasil ekoran kerancuan yang berlaku dalam masyarakat kaum muslimin yang menjerumuskan mereka ke dalam kancah kekeliruan dan kecelaruan pemikiran dan tindakan. Justeru, Dr. Farid Shahran dalam mukaddimah syarahannya cuba memandu perbincangan mencari akar permasalahan sebagai langkah mula penyelesaian masalah umat, lewat katanya “mencari sebab (punca) merupakan sebahagian daripada penyelesaian”.
Dalam modul ketujuh ini, perbincangan difokuskan kepada bentuk cabaran kedua yang mendatangi Kaum Muslimin iaitu cabaran Kebudayaan Barat. Seperti yang telah disinggung sebelum ini, punca kepada masalah itu perlu dikenali terlebih dahulu sebagai pra-syarat kepada penyelesaiannya. Walau bagaimanapun, usaha mencari punca atau akar permasalahan perlu dilakukan dengan teliti, supaya tindakan penyelesaiannya tuntas dan efektif, memetik pesan Dr. Farid dalam syarahannya, “wrong diagnosis will lead to a wrong prescription”.
Walaupun sesi ini memfokus pada cabaran kebudayaan Barat, Dr. Farid dalam mukadimah beliau turut menerangkan serba sedikit akan bentuk cabaran pertama yang melanda kaum Muslimin iaitu kekeliruan ilmu dan keruntuhan adab. Kekeliruan ilmu merupakan penyebab kejatuhan maruah dan kehilangan iman dalam diri masyarakat Islam. Disebabkan masalah ini, masyarakat Islam yang diibaratkan oleh al-Attas sebagai ‘cermin bidal tamsil’ agama Islam, telah menayangkan hakikat zahir Islam yang kotor dan berdebu justeru gagal menggambarkan hakikat batin agama Islam yang sebenar.[3]
Faktor dalaman umat Islam dapat dirumuskan sebagai ‘keruntuhan adab’ (the lost of Adab) yang berlaku dalam pelbagai peringkat termasuk dalam diri manusia itu sendiri.[4] Makna ‘adab’ di sini dihuraikan sebagai ‘pengenalan dan pengakuan adanya tempat yang wajar bagi sesuatu’. Apabila adab telah runtuh, maka berlakulah kecelaruan dan permasalahan berterusan dalam diri dan masyarakat islam dengan wujudnya pemimpin palsu dalam setiap bidang kehidupan yang akhirnya mempengaruhi orang-orang yang dipimpinnya.
Al-Attas meringkaskan masalah ini melalui rumusan berikut: (1) kekeliruan dan kesilapan mengenai faham ilmu (masalah epistemologi), dan keadaan ini membawa akibat (2) keruntuhan adab dalam kalangan masyarakat Islam. Sementara keadaan (1) dan (2) telah menjelmakan natijah (3) kemunculan pemimpin yang tidak layak memikul tanggungjawab pimpinan yang sah, dan yang tiada memadai taraf kepimpinan yang dikehendaki oleh Islam. Pemimpin yang sedemikian mengekalkan terjadinya perkara (1) dan (2) dan menjamin berlakunya terus pengeluaran dan penempatan pemimpin sepertinya. [5] Beliau (al-Attas) mengenalpasti tiga golongan (dalam bidang ilmu khususnya) sebagai penyumbang kepada keruntuhan adab dalam masyarakat Islam iaitu golongan modenis, kelompok pembaharu aliran nakali dan golongan sekular.
Meneruskan perbincangan, ‘Mengapa bercakap tentang Tamadun Barat’? ataupun ‘Mengapa Tamadun Barat itu menjadi cabaran dan masalah kepada Kaum Muslimin?’. Menjawab persoalan-persoalan ini, Dr. Farid Shahran menyenaraikan beberapa perkara pokok dalam perbahasan cabaran Kebudayaan Barat yang terangkum dalam soalan berikut:
(1) Apakah itu Kebudayaan Barat?
(2) Apakah unsur-unsur yang mendominasi Kebudayaan Barat ini yang sebenarnya mencabar pandangan alam Islam dan tindakan Umat Islam sebagai respon terhadap cabaran ini?
(1) Apakah itu Kebudayaan Barat?
Kebudayaan yang dimaksudkan di sini secara umumnya membawa maksud katamadunan. Manakala ‘Barat’ yang dimaksudkan di sini bukanlah semata merujuk kepada Jihah (arah) atau geografi tetapi ideologi dan pandangan alam yang terkendong dalam Kebudayaan atau tamadun Barat itu. Sedar atau tidak, tamadun besar yang muncul dalam sejarah ketamadunan dunia pasti akan merebak, mendominasi dan menjadi kiblat kepada masyarakat dunia keseluruhannya. Dakwaan ini terbukti benar sebagaimana yang telah berlaku dalam Tamadun Islam pada zaman kegemilangannya yang menjadi kiblat ilmu dan budaya manusia seantero dunia.
Apatah lagi dalam zaman di mana kebudayaan Barat mendominasi dunia dan menjadi kiblat kepada manusia zaman ini, dengan sifatnya yang angkuh dan memaksa manusia lain menganut fahaman mereka sebagaimana terumus dalam nukilan Siddiq Fadzil:
“Seperti yang disebut oleh Francis Fukuyama, tamadun Barat telah mencapai puncak kesempurnaannya pada sistem liberal-demokratik-kapitalistik. Menurut penilaiannya tamadun tersebut dapat memberikan segala keperluan manusia sejagat dan dengan demikian berakhirlah proses pencarian ideologi dan sistem hidup yang muktamad. Atas asas itu ia adalah tamadun yang universal dan manusia Barat adalah manusia universal, jelmaan terakhir manusia yang telah mencapai puncak kesempurnaan. Rasa unggul diri dan optimisme Fukuyama yang sebenarnya sangat simplistik dan kontroversial itulah yang dijadikan salah satu asas pewajaran globalisasi tamadun Barat, hegemoni dan dominasi Amerika.”[6]
Kenyataan Siddiq Fadzil ini dikuatkan lagi dengan ungkapan al-Attas ketika membicarakan sikap manusia barat dan Tamadunnya:
“manusia Barat senantiasa berkecenderungan menganggap budaya dan tamadunnya sebagai pelopor kebudayaan insan; serta pengalaman dan kesedarannya sebagai yang paling mithali dan termaju. Kerana itulah, semua kita yang lain ini, kononnya secara amali sentiasalah ketinggalan di belakang mereka. Dan konon kelaknya nanti, apabila tiba masanya, kita juga bakal menyedari dan mencapai pengalaman dan kesedaran yang sama. Dengan sikap inilah manusia Barat –yang mempercayai anggapan aneh mereka sendiri tentang evolusi manusia – sentiasa menanggapi sejarah, pembangunan, dan agama serta pengalaman dan kesedaran keagamaan.”[7]
(2) Apakah unsur-unsur yang mendominasi Kebudayaan Barat ini yang sebenarnya mencabar pandangan alam Islam?
Kebudayaan Barat sebenarnya merupakan adunan unsur-unsur kebudayaan yang rencam dan pelbagai yang bercampur-baur daripada kelompok-kelompok bangsa Barat dan Eropah yang muncul dalam sejarah peradaban mereka. Dalam kata lain, Pandangan alam Barat terbentuk dari hasil himpunan pelbagai benda dan perkara, nilai, dan penjelmaan kebudayaan yang disepadukan, memetik kata al-Attas,
“Kesepaduan hasil himpunan pelbagai benda ini adalah kesepaduan yang dibuat-buat, tidak ada keaslian, tidak seia sifat bawaan semula jadinya (fitrah) dan oleh sebab itu kesepaduan seperti itu yang menayangkan suatu pandangan alam mesti wajib menempuh perubahan melalui perubahan zaman”.[8]
Pandangan alam Barat juga terbentuk dengan beransur-ansur menepati perkembangan sejarah atau gerak daya falsafah mahupun penemuan ilmu sains yang kesemuanya ini bersifat berubah-ubah mengikut peredaran masa menerusi dialectical iaitu satu seni menilai kebenaran sesuatu teori atau pendapat secara perdebatan dan perbincangan. Lazimnya, dialectical membicarakan tiga keadaan utama; thesis, antithesis, synthesis yang saling berkait dan melalui proses pusingan sejarah (historical cycle proses). Thesis adalah keadaan asal atau permulaan sesuatu. Dengan timbulnya persoalan tertentu yang berlawanan dan menggugat keadaan asal sesuatu itu (thesis), maka keaadaan kedua ini digelar antithesis. Keadaan yang terakhir iaitu synthesis muncul apabila keadaan asal (thesis) dan keadaan kedua (antithesis) digabungkan dengan sebati sehingga melampaui batas kedua-duanya. Antithesis tadi akan kemudiannya menjadi sebuah thesis yang baharu dan digugat oleh antithesis yang lain seterusnya bergabung membentuk synthesis yang baharu.
Pengalaman dan falsafah kebudayaan Barat yang rancam dan rancu bercampur baur antara warisan keagamaan judeo-kristian yang ditahrifkan (diubahsuai) dan falsafah bangsa-bangsa Eropah seperti Yunani Kuno[9], Romawi[10], Jerman, Inggeris dan Perancis.[11] Justeru, asas dan teras sebenar kebudayaan Barat kini adalah falsafah dan agama secara jelas dibelakangkan.
Malah, selepas abad pertengahan di Eropah, unsur-unsur yang mendominasi kebudayaan Barat ialah unsur-unsur sekular yang didasari oleh tiga fahaman penting iaitu ‘humanisme’, ‘dualism’, dan ‘tragik’. ‘Humanisme’ meletakkan keistimewaan manusia dan kebendaan semata-mata sementara ‘dualisme’ menduakan hakikat sesuatu termasuk nilai kebenaran, dan ‘tragik’ merupakan pencarian makna hidup yang tidak tercapai dan penerimaan pengalaman kesengsaraan hidup sebagai satu kepercayaan yang mutlak.[12] Unsur-unsur ini telah melahirkan pelbagai fahaman sekular yang lain seperti penekanan terhadap sangkaan dan syak (doubtness) dalam dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan, penekanan berlebihan terhadap kenegaraan (nasionalisme), penekanan ekstrem terhadap faham perubahan (change and reform), pembangunan (development) dan kemajuan (advancement) yang tidak berkesudahan.
Menariknya, dalam mengupas peranan falsafah dalam kebudayaan Barat, Dr. Farid telah mencuit perhatian dengan menyinggung ringkas beberapa idea besar para pemikir Yunani seperti Plato dan Aristotle. Sememangnya, peranan dan keunggulan para failasuf dari Tamadun Yunani Kuno ini tak dapat kita nafikan sebagaimana yang di ungkapkan oleh Alfred North Whitehead, “the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato…”.
Dr. Farid juga menerangkan serba sedikit tentang konsep kemutlakan ‘Idea’ (Theory of Forms) yang digagaskan dalam karya Plato, “Republic”. Katanya, menurut Plato, segala yang wujud dan ditanggap oleh indera manusiawi sebenarnya tidak hakiki (real) kerana berbilang-bilang dan berubah-ubah. Yang hakiki sebenarnya berada dalam alam ‘Idea’. Dalam kata lain, Plato berkeyakinan bahawa alam Idea yang ideal merupakan hakikat mutlak (absolute reality), bukan alam inderawi (external world).
Dr. Farid menjelaskan konsep ini dengan memberi contoh analogi kereta: Kereta itu pelbagai jenis; ada Proton Saga, Produa dan lain-lain. Sekiranya kita mengajar anak kecil untuk mengenal tiga jenis kereta yang dia nampak – itu kereta kancil, itu kereta proton saga, itu kereta Waja – kemudian datang kereta yang keempat yang kita tidak ajarkan kepadanya, dia akan dapat mengenali bahawa kereta keempat itu ialah sejenis kereta. Ini kerana, menurut Plato, idea tentang sesuatu (dalam kes ini kereta - (‘carness’ / kekeretaan)) itu mutlak dan ada pada semua manusia yang membuatkan kita mampu membezakan dan merefleksikan kereta-kereta di sekeliling kita. Maksudnya, dalam akal kita punya idea tentang kereta, hanya ada satu kereta yang ideal dan itulah realiti yang mutlak. Dr. Farid juga ada menceritakan tentang Allegory of the Cave – anologi yang dicipta Plato bagi memudahkan penjelasannya berhubung Theory of Forms.
Menyentuh tentang sumbangan Aristotle, Dr. Farid memperkenalkan para pelajar dengan logik ala-Aristotle. Dengan merujuk kepada tulisan Ibn Sina yang banyak menterjemahkan karya Aristotle, Dr. Farid menyatakan bahawa logik, sebagai satu seni dan cara berfikir dengan betul, mempunyai dua komponen utama; (1) Tasawwurat (conception) dan (2) Tasdiqat (judgement). Komponen Tasawwurat (conception) adalah berkaitan dengan pendefinisian (definition) yang merangkum dua perkara iaitu jins (genus) dan fashl (differentia). Jins bermaksud jenis manakala fashl bermaksud pengkelasan. Manakala, aspek tasdiqat pula berkaitan dengan theory of inference atau lebih dikenali sebagai syllogism atau logik deduktif (deductive reasoning).
Meneruskan perbincangan, Dr. Farid menghuraikan cabaran paling besar yang didepani umat Islam kini (yang berkaitan dengan Kebudayaan Barat) ialah cabaran ilmu, dan kaum Muslimin sewajarnya bertindak dengan hikmah dalam menangani cabaran ini. Menurut al-Attas,
“I venture to maintain that the greatest challenge that has surreptitiously arisen in our age is the challenge of knowledge, indeed not as against ignorance; but knowledge as conceived and disseminated throughout the world by Western civilization; knowledge whose nature has become problematic because it has lost its true purpose due to being unjustly conceived, and it has brought about chaos in man’s life instead of, and rather than justice; knowledge which pretends to be real but which is productive of confusion and scepticism, which has elevated doubt and conjecture to the ‘scientific’ rank in methodology and which regards doubt as an eminently valid epistemological tool in the pursuit of truth; knowledge which has, for the first time in history, brought chaos to the Three Kingdoms of Nature; the animal, vegetal and mineral.”[13]
Jelas, epistemologi ilmu Barat yang merosakkan menjadi tentangan hebat kaum Muslimin apatah lagi dalam zaman ini di mana semua perkara termasuk ilmu harus berkiblatkan Barat. Oleh sebab itu, cendekiawan seperti al-Attas telah mengesyorkan sebuah kerangka pemahaman ilmu yang sebenar dan menganjurkan proses pengislaman ilmu-ilmu semasa yang melibatkan tahapan dewesternisasi dan Islamisasi.[14]
Kesimpulannya, Tamadun dan peradaban Barat sedang berkuasa dan mendominasi dunia pada waktu ini. Sifat budayanya yang memaksa masyarakat lain untuk menganut faham Barat berjalan melalui pelbagai kaedah. Meminjam kata Prof. Wan Mohd Nor, kita ini bukanlah menderita penyakit xenophobia ketika membicarakan tentang Tamadun Barat, tetapi bersikap tegas dan objektif terhadap anasir perosak ini. Jelas, masyarakat kaum Muslimin sudahpun merasai penderitaan penyakit berkaitan jiwa sehingga memaksa perlakuan yang sama sekali jauh daripada norma-norma ketimuran. Penyakit jiwa manusia ini telah mendorong pelbagai perilaku yang menyalahi norma kemanusiaan. Dua faktor utama masalah ini dikenal pasti, faktor dalam insan iaitu kehilangan adab dan ditambahburukkan oleh faktor luaran yakni cabaran kebudayaan Barat terutama cabaran ilmu.
Hakikatnya, pandangan alam Islam adalah sama sekali berbeza dan bertentangan dengan pandangan hidup Barat. Pandangan alam Islam adalah komprehensif dan integral dan menunjukkan manusia nilai-nilai Islam yang hakiki. Manakala pandangan hidup Barat bersifat rencam dan rancu sehingga menyebabkan masyarakat Barat hidup dalam penderitaan mencari makna diri. Psikologi jiwa manusia jelas menunjukkan hakikat kemanusiaan berdasarkan fitrah yang Tuhan ciptakan.
Hasil daripada sumber wahyu yang tulen dan terpelihara, intipati agama Islam tidak mengalami perubahan sebagaimana yang berlaku dalam agama-agama lain. Justeru, masyarakat Islam tidak sewajarnya terikut-ikut dan hanyut dibawa arus globalisasi dan semboyan perubahan dan kemajuan yang ditiup oleh Barat. Sebaliknya, sesuai dengan makna al-din yang antara lain membawa maksud ‘pengembalian kepada fitrah asal yang tunduk kepada Tuhan’, setiap tindakan dan pemikiran Muslim harus dilihat sebagai proses pengembalian diri (raj’) melalui penghambaan diri (‘ubudiyah) kepada Tuhan. Kedudukan Nabi Muhammad SAW sebagai contoh tauladan akhlaqiyah yang kekal dan berterusan kepada semua generasi umat Islam juga amat penting dalam menanggapi isu-isu yang dicanang oleh Barat seperti kebebasan, akhlak, krisis identiti, jurang generasi, perubahan dan kemajuan.
[1] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Risalah Untuk Kaum Muslimin,(KL: ISTAC, 2001), hal. 135, 137-138
[2] Ibid. hal. 18, 20-22
[3] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Risalah Untuk Kaum Muslimin,(KL: ISTAC, 2001), hal. 6
[4] Ibid. hal. 135
[5] Ibid. hal. 137-138
[6] Siddiq Fadzil, http://khairaummah.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=139, 26 -01-06
[7] Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud, Pembangunan di Malaysia: Ke Arah Satu Kefahaman Baru yang Lebih Sempurna,(KL: ISTAC, 2001), hal. 3
[8] Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas ,. Tinjauan Ringkas Peri Ilmu dan Pandangan Alam dalam Himpuan Kertas Kerja Persidangan Isu dan Proses Pembukaan Minda Umat Melayu Islam (Kuala Lumpur: DBP, 2002), hal.
[9] Aspek dalam Kebudayaan Yunani Kuno yang mempengaruhi Kebudayaan Barat antaranya ialah aspek falsafah, pendidikan, kenegaraan, ilmu pengetahuan dan kesenian.
[10] Aspek perundangan dan ketatanegaraan merupakan aspek paling menonjol pada Kebudayaan Romawi yang menjalar pada Kebudayaan Barat kini. Sebagai contoh, kod undang-undang Justinian menjadi asas kepada penal code dalam perundangan yang digunapakai di negara-negara Eropah.
[11] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Risalah Untuk Kaum Muslimin,(KL: ISTAC, 2001), hal. 18
[12] Ibid., hal. 20-22
[13] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Islam and Secularism, (KL: ISTAC, 1993), hal. 133
[14] Maklumat lanjut, sila rujuk Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Islam and Secularism, (KL: ISTAC, 1993), bab 5 (The Dewesternization of Knowledge)
Montgommery Watt and His Criticism on Wahy
Montgomery Watt and His Criticism on Wahy
Mohammad Fazril Bin Mohd. Saleh
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM)
Introduction
‘Abdullah Ibn Amr reported that the Holy Prophet said: “Allah will not take away knowledge (la yaqbidu al ‘ilma) by taking it away from the servants, but He will take away the learned (wa lakin yaqbidu al-‘ilma bi qabdi al-‘ulama`);[1] so that when no learned man remains, the people will take the ignorant as their leaders. They will seek religious opinion from them and these ignorant (leaders) will deliver opinions without knowledge, when they would go astray and lead other to astray.[2]
If one look carefully at our world today, one can see the messages floating around from all directions, each try to communicate something for us to see, to hear, to feel and to accept. Some messages may convey something positive or something wrong, negative and harmful. It is our responsibility to develop within ourselves the ability to filter information in order to ensure that it does not negatively affect our life. The ability to make use of messages positively and protect oneself against their adverse effect depends upon one’s perceptual understanding of realities and truth in their relative as well as their absolute nature.[3] As a Muslim, we have to be aware and remain constantly conscious of the truth and reality of our religion which is Islam. Indeed, we need to search for reliable sources and information which interpreting the heart of religion, The Holy Quran and The Tradition of The Prophet SAW which are known as wahy.
Since after the Medieval age, thousands of Occidental Intellectuals has been working hardly, systematically, and creatively to produce a lot of works about Islam with prejudice and unfair conclusion. This phenomenon is a result of confrontation between The West and Islam where the basis of this clash is religion. It is exactly this relationship which inspires a permanent deepening of ideologically fabricated misunderstandings between Islam and Christianity, leading to intensification of dramatic confrontation these two religions. [4] Those works on Islam by the Westerners are known as “Orientalism”. According to Edward W. Said, Orientalism is “anyone who teaches, writes about, or researches the Orient either in its specific or its general aspect, is an Orientalist, and what he or she does is Orientalism”.[5] Orientalism also refers to “a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between the Orient and the Occident”. [6]
Actually, the intention of this paper is to discuss briefly about the criticism on wahy by the Orientalist in general and William Montgomery Watt (d. 2006) in particular. It is well known that some Orientalist have been instrumental in discovering, editing, and publishing a number of original Arabic works and manuscripts.[7] In the past as well as in modern times, scholars have dealt with it from time to time. Some serious studies have appeared on the method and approaches of the Orientalist with regards to Islamic themes in general and the wahy in particular. Those studies are among our references besides several genuine works of W. Montgomery Watt (Watt) in order to discuss about the subject matter.
This paper will firstly discuss about Watt’s biographical background, consists of, his life, education, experiences and works. Watt is acknowledged as a leading European authority on Islam and the Prophet at the present time. His works such as Muhammad at Mecca (1953), Muhammad at Medina (1956), and Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (1980) have been republished a number of times.[8] They have also been translated in a number of European Languages and also in Arabic and other world languages. His works are among the most influential “interpretation of Islam” in Europe. Secondly, about the reality of Islam under the topic of “The Worldview of Islam”. It is important to discuss about world view as it projects the nature and reality of Islam, like mentioned by Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (al-Attas): “a methaphysical survey of the visible as well as the invisible worlds including the perspective of life as a whole”[9] based on the true understanding of wahy as taught by Prophet Muhammad SAW and the authority in Islam.
Also in this paper, wahy is being defined in the light of authenticity scholarship in Islam under the topic “Concept of Wahy”. The concept and process of wahy in Islam is based on authentic reports. The worldview of Islam reveals that the authorship of The Qur`an could only be ascribed to Allah.[10] Some author especially Orientalist including Watt declare that the Qur`an has been composed by the Prophet on his own or with the help of ohers.[11] Watt said that Prophet Muhammad SAW may have been mistaken in believing The Qur`an to be a divine message[12] and described The Qur`an as “the Product of Creative Imagination”.[13] Watt in his works also mentioned about the nature of Islam in his perspective.[14] He reiterates it as the “Islamic Vision” which he said is contained in wahy (the Qur`an), came to Prophet Muhammad SAW and was shared by him with some of his fellow-citizen.[15] But the problem with his understanding of Islamic Vision is absolutely contradicted with the reality of Islam and this matter will be discussed under the topic “Watt’s Treatment of Wahy”.
Biographical background
Professor William Montgomery Watt is one of the most famous scholars especially in field of Islamic studies. Watt is acknowledged as a leading European authority on Islam and the Prophet at the present time. He has died in age of 97 (24th October 2006)[16] The most famous three books written by him focus on one person that is The Prophet Muhammad, acknowledged by experts to be classics in the field.[17]
Watt was born in Ceres, Fife where his father died when he was 14 months old. His father was a Minister. He was educated at George Watson’s College, Edinburgh and continued taking degree at Edinburgh and Oxford Universities where he took three degrees in six years.[18] In year 1937, Watt discovered Islam that took him to a Muslim lodger, KA Mannan, a veterinary student from Pakistan. According to Watt, he began to learn something about Islam that he had been largely ignorant about it. But then Watt wrote that stated “the dominant impression was that I was engaged not merely in arguing with this individual but in confronting a whole, century-old system of thought and life”[19].
This discovery also has led him to the Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem, George Francis Graham Brown. Brown has became the father figure to Watt, who agreed to join him in Jerusalem as his chaplain, working on the intellectual approach to Islam. This also meant that he had to seek ordination in the Anglican Church, he was fast-tracked through Cuddesdon Theological College in a year and ordain deacon in 1939. He was ordained in 1940, and after St Mary’s was closed because of bomb damage, Watt returned to Edinburgh to finish his training as a curate at Old St Paul’s, and begin work on his doctoral thesis, “Free Will and Predestination in Early Islam”.[20]
Returning to Scotland in year 1946, Watt became a lecturer in Arabic at Edinburgh, University where he remained there until his retirement in 1979. He was given a personal chair in Arabic and Islamic Studies in 1964.[21] Watt has wrote 30 books and scores of articles. He was towering figure in the history of Edinburgh University Press, establishing the highly successful Islamic Surveys series in 1962 to bring the subject to a wider readership, and writing seven books for that press, all which are still in print and are amongst the bestsellers. His other books have been translated into a vast array of other languages. William was awarded many academic honors, he had visiting Professorships at the University of Toronto, the College de France, and Georgetown University, and received the American Giorgio Levi Della Vida Medal and was, as his first recipient, the British Society for Middle Eastern studies award for outstanding scholarship.[22]
Among his works are The faith and practice of al-Ghazālī (1953), Muhammad at Mecca (1953), Muhammad at Medina (1956), Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (1961), Islamic Philosophy and Theology (1962), Islamic Political Thought (1968),Islamic Surveys: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe (1972), The Majesty That Was Islam (1976), What Is Islam? (1980), Muhammad's Mecca (1988), Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions (1991), Islamic Philosophy And Theology (1987), Islamic Creeds (1994), History of Islamic Spain, Islamic Political Thought (1998) and A Christian Faith For Today (2002).[23]
Watt’s stated that he doubted the appropriateness of conversion and felt that those of all faiths should collaborate in friendship to stern the tide of materialism and secularization. He was not afraid to express his radical theological opinions. The controversial ones in some Christian ecclesiastical circles. He often pondered on the question of what influence his study of Islam had exerted on him in his own Christian faith. As a direct result, he came to argue that the Islamic emphasis on the uncompromising oneness of God had caused him to reconsider the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, which is vigorously attached in the Qur’an as undermining true monotheism.[24]
His aspirations to the highest degrees of objectivity are apparent in statements like “I am not a Muslim in the usual sense, though I hope I am a “Muslim” as “one surrendered to God”; but I believe that embedded in the Qur’an and other expressions of the Islamic vision are vast stores of divine truth from which I and other occidentals have still much to learn”[25]. This statement projects his love towards knowledge and truth, even though some of his views on Islam is controversial and absolutely contradict to the reality of Islam.
The Worldview of Islam
The worldview of Islam is the ‘aqidah of Islam itself[26]. It projects the vision of the one reality and truth. It encompasses both dunya and akhirah in which, as al-Attas put it, “the dunya-aspect must be related in a profound and inseparable way to the akhirah-aspect and in which the akhlak aspect was ultimate and final significance. The dunya aspect is seen as preparation for the dunya-aspect. Everything in Islam is ultimately focused on the akhirah aspect without thereby implying any attitude of neglect or being unmindful of the dunya aspect”.[27]
The worldview of Islam is a fixed unchanging, final and absolute vision because it is grounded in and derived from wahy.[28] This is not merely a theoretical claim, for Muslim historical experience has shown that the fundamental element of the worldview such as the conception of God, of the nature of man and of the psychology of the human soul, and the meaning of knowledge, of happiness, of virtue and vices, and of prophethood have no change throughout the long ages of Islamic epoch.[29]
In the book “What is Islam” (1990), Watt stated that: “while much of what valuable in the nomadic Arabic outlook has been taken into the central core of Islam and there transformed, there would also appear to be matters which have been given an Islamic dress without any fundamental change…”[30] It is absolutely a false statement which describes Islam as a derivation of cultural and philosophical elements but it is one whose source is wahy, confirmed by religion, affirmed by intellectual and intuitive principles.[31] This wahy is final, an it not only confirms the truth of preceding revelations in their original forms, but includes their substance, separating the truth from cultural creation and ethnic inventions.[32]
The worldview of Islam consist of [33]: (1) belief in the oneness of Allah; (2) belief that Allah is the creator of this universe; (3) belief that Allah is the sustainer of the world; (4) belief in the unseen realities and the life to come; (5) recognition of the Holy Prophet Muhammad as the Messenger of Allah, and (6) belief in the angels of Allah and the authority that defines the truth as separate from falsehood (Qur`an: Yunus: 32).[34] For Muslims, Islam represents a way of life guided by proper knowledge and ethical principles outlined in The Holy Qur`an and exemplified in the practical life of The Holy Prophet[35]. As explain by al-Attas: “the man of Islam has with him The Qur`an which is itself unchanged, unchanging, and unchangeable; it is a Speech of God revealed in complete and final form.”[36]
Concept of Wahy
God sends His words to His creation through an imperceptible message called as wahy.[37] The imperceptible message has played a role in the formation of Islamic civilization and also like many other concepts in terminology of Islam. Wahy has also be part of victim to the innumerable misunderstanding.[38]
In the ancient as well as the modern period, people were continuously occupied in generating ambiguity on the overall concept, background and forms of wahy. There are many false perception and accusations. It is due to the result of totally erroneous statements made about Islam in the West and disseminated in the East either being a systematic denigration or is based on preposterous evidence. There are many untruths were fabricated and the most dangerous was that the Qur’an was authored by the Prophet. According to the western scholars the Prophet invented it is wording and formulated it style. The true perception of wahy must be explained to others and it will help one to understand the position of Islam in the midst of other philosophies and way of life.
The literal meaning of wahy, according to Thameem Ushama, derives from the root or semantic meaning of sur’ah (quickness or promptness) and khafyah (secrecy). These two meanings describe the real nature of wahy as it is revealed through human prophets and messenger. Literally the word wahy also derives from “aiha” which is means revelation, inspiration, quick signal, animal natural instinct and etcetera. The lexical meaning of the Arabic word wahy is the secret inspiration that is felt only by the one who inspires and the other who is inspired. The Qur’an has used this word both for instinctive inspiration by Allah to His creation in general and for the revelation towards His prophets in particular.[39]
As mentioned by Israr Ahmad Khan, wahy means communication. It is taken by verbs from “ahwa” that is for instances, denotes sentence of “he communicated”.[40] Communication is the backbone of life. It provides the means through which people can communicate to learn from one another and exchange ideas in organizing normal life in which groups and individuals can live in peace, harmony, security and prosperity.[41] According to Omar Jah, the first meaningful line of communication to help men organize life on earth came in a dialogue between God and the Angles, when Allah communicated to them His decision to appoint a khalifah to be entrusted with responsibility, to administer the affairs of creatures on earth, to maintain law and order, to establish peace, security and harmony.[42] The Khalifah appointed by Allah is properly equipped with divine knowledge to discern truth from falsehood in belief, right from wrong in judgement and good from evil in action. This was wahy (the divine message) communicated to all Messenger of Allah. The Holy Qur`an says “O ye the Messenger of Allah, do communicate what is being sent to down you, if you do not, you would not have fulfilled your mission”.[43]
Wahy also bring the meaning that it is certainly message from the heaven (Allah). This meaning agreed by Muhammad ‘Abduh, who is according to him wahy it is a sublime knowledge (‘irfan) imported in one’s heart (qalb) with absolute conviction and also it must be from Allah. Furthermore, the wahy in the meaning above may be derived either through a medium (wasitah) and it is therefore audible in nature by using a voice or it may be without a medium and it was therefore requested directly to the heart of prophets. It is inaudible that is mean without a voice.[44] Watt described that Muslims take what is revealed to human beings is also called as “the word of God”. The Arabic term is ‘kalam’, and this can be correctly translated ‘speech’, since it also being used for God’s attribute to speech, while ‘kalima’ represented the single word.[45]
Meanwhile, Al-Attas refers wahy as “speech of God concerning Himself, His creation, the relation between them, and the way to salvation communicated to His chosen Prophet and Messenger, not by sound or letter, yet comprising all that He has represented in words, then conveyed by the Prophet to the mankind in the linguistic form new in nature (Arabic Language of Qur`an) yet comprehensible, without confusion with the Prophet’s own subjectivityand cognitive imagination. This wahy is final, an it not only confirms the truth of preceding revelations in their original forms, but includes their substance, separating the truth from cultural creation and ethnic inventions.”[46]
Wahy projects the ‘worldview of Islam’ as mention in the sub-topic before,[47] “the worldview of Islam is a fixed unchanging, final and absolute vision because it is grounded in and derived from wahy.[48] This is not merely a theoretical claim, for Muslim historical experience has shown that the fundamental element of the worldview such as the conception of God, of the nature of man and of the psychology of the human soul, and the meaning of knowledge, of happiness, of virtue and vices, and of prophethood have no change throughout the long ages of Islamic epoch.”[49]
Islamic perspective towards Divine Revelation is that God has not only created human beings, but also continually guided them by raising series of prophethood since time immemorial starting with Adam and ending it with the last Prophet Muhammad SAW and it stated that every prophet or messenger must have received revelation (wahy) from God, which His Divine guidance (huda or hidayah) directing people to lead their lives in accordance with the absolute command of God. The command is of two kinds, that it is the instructions (al-awamir) and the prohibitions (al-nawahi). Those who believed and obeyed the command are believers, and those who rejected are condemned as unbelievers.
Watt’s Treatment of Wahy
We have discussed in the subtopics before about the nature of Islam and of wahy. Actually the discussion before are quite clear to answer most of Watt’s accusations and false statements about wahy. In several works of Watt, he has arrived at some conclusion about wahy. Major points raised by him that will be discussed here are: (1) wahy is a projection of Prophet’s ideas of socio-religious reforms arising out of his time, environment and circumstances[50]; (2) wahy is derived from the ancient Arab (pagan) poet has been influenced by the ideas and facts of other religions such as Christianity, Jews and Zoroastrians which prevailing in Arabia at the time; (3) the wahy does not mean verbal communication of a text, but suggestion or inspiration to give out the Qur`an and Jibril A.S was introduced at a later stage as a conveyer of way; and (4) Satan has outsmarted the Prophet by putting into his mouth some polytheistic ideas.
Watt admitted some similarities between wahy (which he mentioned as the work of the Prophet) and works of man’s creative imagination such as drama and poetry in the sense that both type of works have a wide appeal and producing material from the collective unconscious.[51] Thameem Ushama mentioned[52] that Watt has arrived at conclusion that Prophet Muhammad SAW may have been mistaken in believing The Qur`an to be a divine message[53] and described The Qur`an as “the Product of Creative Imagination”.[54] The fact is wahy is neither the sudden visions of great poets and artists claim for themselves; nor the apostolic inspiration of the writers of sacred scripture; nor the illuminative intuition of the sages and people of discernment.[55] Israr Ahmad Khan put a question for this allegation: “if it was Muhammad himself who developed the book, why he did not, the attribute it to his name?”[56] Prophet would have undoubtedly hailed by his compatriots as well as the world today as the most remarkable literary genius for producing the work with extraordinary language and messages.[57]
Watt seems to have accepted the view the continuance of pre-Islamic (Jahiliah) attitudes happened in the Qur`an as he try to find similarity of messages in both the Qur`an and the pagan poetry[58] Also, he try to make conclusion that Qur`an in the earliest passage have no insistence on the truth that there is no deity but God.[59] He claimed that in the early time of Islam, the doctrine of monotheism is vague and admiration for superior culture like the people of Syria and Iraq (who believe in one God) and influence of Judaism and Christianity made the acceptance of monotheism become easier.[60] Firstly, as mentioned by M. Mohar Ali, for Muhammad’s emergence as Prophet must have been marked by something new and better on his part than what was already known. None would paid any attention to him and become his followers if his ideas were not clearly in advance of those of the enlightened Meccans.[61] Secondly, the message of Tawhid and its principles in the Qur`an is very clear as mentioned for instance in Surah al-Ikhlas(Qur`an: 112) and surah al-Kafirun(Qur`an: 109). Thirdly, it is clear that Islam by its nature was conscious of his own identity from the time of its revelation.[62] When it appeared on the stage of the world history. Islam is already ‘mature’, needing no process of growing up to maturity. Al-Attas stressed that wahy religion (‘revealed religion’) can only be that which known itself from the very beginning and that self-knowledge comes from wahy itself, not from history.”[63] Israr Ahmad Khan argued that the Qur`anic account of many stories is essentially different from the Biblical account, in many respect.[64] Also, the Qur`an states clearly about the differences between Islam and Judeo-Christian traditions and religions.[65]
In translating surah al-Najm Watt adopts Bell’s rendering of the expressions wahy and awha as “suggestion” and “suggested”. These meaning are not all correct for Qur`anic wahy.[66] The meaning of the word change with the change of the context. Indeed, a common English equivalent for wahy should be communication rather than suggestion.[67] This meaning would fit in all situation.[68] Wahy maybe of different types depending on the nature of the matter communication. Watt mentoned “There is no mention of Gabriel (Jibril A.S) in the Qur`an until the Medinan period”.[69] According to M. Mohar Ali, Watt invoked the opinion of Karl Ahrens who said that there is no mention of Jibril in the Meccan passages of the Qur`an. Actually, Watt has misinterpreted the Qur`anic terms, words and passages. Jibril is mentioned several times in the Qur`an (especially in Meccan passages) by several names which refers to the Archangel Jibril A.S such as “Rasul Karim”[70] and “al-Ruh”.[71] Both names are refers to the same individual whom mentioned as the conveyer of wahy who is also described as al-amin[72](nazzala bihi al-ruh al-amin) which means faithful and having been employed as a messenger by God. Moreover, the specific mention of him by name Jibril as a conveyer of wahy can be found for example in surah al-Baqarah(2): 97.
Watt’s most controversial view is his theory of ‘Satanic versus’.[73] He claimed that ayat 19-23 of surah al-Najm is those verses. Watt said that: “it is assumed in Islam that all such Satanic alterations in the Qur`an have been discovered and corrected…”[74] and “…Satan had managed to slip in the false versus of the first version without Muhammad noticing it...”[75] But the Qur`an already stated that it is impossible.[76] According to Israr Ahmad Khan, the incident involving those versus is totally different with the story rose by Watt. He corrected Watt as in 5A.H., when a number of early Islamic community took refuge in Abbysina, Prophet after having received the complete surah al-Najm (the Qur`an: 53) from Allah, recited it to a large audience comprising the companions and non-believers. In the end as the last word demand for doing prostration, Prophet made it and followed by the others including the non-believers. The Quraysh, later on felt ashamed of their joining in doing prostration to Allah with Prophet S.A.W, and to wash off this stigma fabricated the story that they follow the later in prostration because they heard Prophet Muhammad praising their idol.[77] Israr Ahmad Khan also in his commentary to this matter said that almost all the Orientalists described the Prophet as a genius, but Muhammad S.A.W as an intelligent person cannot realize the nature of the two opposite messages which one is allegedly Satanic versus and the other is genuinely divine versus: the former appreciates the Arab’s chief goddesses and the latter condemn them as falsehood. These two views are too distinct to escape even an ordinary person’s mind.[78]
Conclusion
From our brief survey, we can see that William Montgomery Watt (Watt) is one of the westerners whose works (most of them) are systematically and scientifically written about Islam. As stated by Edward Said: ‘Orientalism’ is “anyone who teaches, writes about, or researches the Orient either in its specific or its general aspect, is an Orientalist, and what he or she does is Orientalism”.[79] Watt was absolutely belongs to them. However, his statements, theories, interpretations and assumptions about Islam at certain extent look contradict with the truth and reality of Islam (as discussed before),[80] its Holy Prophet, its Holy Scripture, and Islamic themes including wahy, which have became our primary subject of this paper. Also, at certain places, his conclusion are contradict and irrelevant between one to another as for example criticized by M. Mohar Ali in the problem rose by Watt about the Prophet’s literacy: “…what Watt says in his first paragraph is in fact rendered irrelevant with what he says in his second paragraph dealing with the origin and meaning of iqra`”[81]
However, there are also positive aspect and effect of his works. He was known by many scholars of the west as a legendary figure among scholars who in the field of Islamic studies. Also, he dedicated his life to the promotion of dialogue between Christians and Muslims.[82] Before his death, he came to argue that the Islamic emphasis on the uncompromising oneness of God had caused him to reconsider the Christians doctrine of the Trinity, which is vigorously attacked in the Qur’an as undermining the monotheism.[83] Influenced by Islam with its 99 names of God, each expressing specials attributes of God, Watt returned to the Latin word “persona” which meant a “face” or “mask”, and not “individuals” as it now means in English.[84]
About wahy, it is clear to us that it is a medium of communication between God and mankind. Wahy project the worldview of Islam which is the information of the absolute truth and reality. Wahy is a kind of man’s behavioral and spiritual needs. Man stands almost identical to animals without those wahy.
Lastly, based on this survey, we arrived at the conclusion that Watt was a very famous figure in Islamic studies especially in the West but his criticism to Islam and its themes especially wahy is invalid, contradictory and irrelevant as it is disable to show the nature of Islam itself unlike the believe of true Muslim. Hence, as a Muslim, we have to search for the true knowledge from authentic and reliable people and sources especially in the world today. [85]
Cited Bibliography
al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib Prolegomena to The Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of The Fundamental Elements of The Worldview of Islam, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1995.
. “Islamic Weltanschauung: A Brief Overiew”, Forum ISTAC al-Hikmah, (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1999), yr. 5 issue no.1.. “The Worldview of Islam: An Outline”, Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1994..Adi Setia, Mohd Dom. Worldview of Islam Academy: The Concept, Kuala Lumpur: HAKIM, 2010.
Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. The Holy Qur’an: Translation and Commentary, U.S.A: Amana Corporation Maryland, 1983.
Ali, Muhammad Mohar. Sirat al-Nabi And The Orientalist, Madinah: King Fahd Complex of Printing The Holy Quran, 1997.
Hillenbrand, Carole. “Article on Professor W. Montgomery Watt”, Edinburgh Middle East Report Online, Winter 2006
Khan, Israr Ahmad. Qur`anic Studies: An Introduction, Kuala Lumpur: Zaman Islam Media, 2000.
Muhic, Ferid. “Dialogue of Civilizations Through The Corridors of Faith and Mind”, Knowledge, Language, Thought & The Civilization of Islam, Johor Bharu: UTM Press, 2010.
Richard Holloway, “William Montgomery Watt” The Guardian. Edition 14th Nov. 2006.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism, New York: Vintage Books, 1929.
Al-Tabrizi, Wali al-Din Muhammad Abdullah al-Khatib. Mishkat al-Masabih. Translation by abdul Hameed Siddiqi, Lahore: Islamic Publication, 1976.
Ushama, Thameem. Issues in The Study of The Qur`an, Kuala Lumpur: Ilmiah Publisher, 2002.
Watt, W. Montgomery. What Is Islam, Beirut: Library of Lebanon, 1990.
Watt, W. Montgomery. Islam and Christianity today: A Contribution to Dialogue, Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1991.
Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad: Prophet and The Statesman, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948.
Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad at Mecca, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.
[1] Narrated by Imam Bukhari and Muslim
[2] Wali al-Din Muhammad Abdullah al-Khatib al-Tabrizi, Mishkat al-Masabih. Translation by abdul Hameed Siddiqi, (Lahore: Islamic Publication, 1976), chap. 1 pg. 29
[3] Omar Jah, “Al Balagh”, Knowledge, Language, Thought & The Civilization of Islam, (Johor Bharu: UTM Press, 2010), pg. 83.
[4] Ferid Muhic, “Dialogue of Civilizations Through The Corridors of Faith and Mind”, Knowledge, Language, Thought & The Civilization of Islam, (Johor Bharu: UTM Press, 2010), pg. 200.
[5] Edward W. Said, Orientalism, (New York: Vintage Books, 1929), pg 204.
[6] Ibid.
[7] Muhammad Mohar Ali, Sirat al-Nabi And The Orientalist, (Madinah: King Fahd Complex of Printing The Holy Quran, 1997), pg. 23.
[8] Ibid. pg. preface.
[9] Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas, “The Worldview of Islam: An Outline”, Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1994)
[10] Thameem Ushama, Issues in The Study of The Qur`an, (Kuala Lumpur: Ilmiah Publisher, 2002), pg. 71
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid. pg. 73
[13] W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and The Statesman, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948), pg. 15
[14] W. Montgomery Watt, What Is Islam, (Beirut: Library of Lebanon, 1990), pg. 9
[17] Carole Hillenbrand, “article on Professor W. Montgomery Watt”, Edinburgh Middle East Report Online, Winter 2006
[19] see website : www.alastairmcIntosh.com, An interview with “the Last Orientalist” - the Rev Prof William Montgomery Watt by Bashir Maan & Alastair McIntosh
[21] Ibid.
[22] Ibid.
[23] See website : www.wikipedia.com/williammontgomerywatt
[24] see website : www.alastairmcIntosh.com, An interview with “the Last Orientalist”, op.cit.
[25] W. Montgomery Watt, What Is Islam, pg. 21.
[26] Omar Jah, op.cit, pg. 83
[27] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, “Islamic Weltanschauung: A Brief Overiew”, Forum ISTAC al-Hikmah, (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1999), yr. 5 issue no.1, pg. 3
[28] Adi Setia Mohd Dom, Worldview of Islam Academy: The Concept, (Kuala Lumpur: HAKIM, 2010), pg. 7
[29] Ibid.
[30] W. Montgomery Watt, What Is Islam, (Beirut: Library of Lebanon, 1990), pg. 23
[31] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena to The Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of The Fundamental Elements of The Worldview of Islam, (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1995), pg. 4
[32] Ibid. pg. 6
[33] Omar Jah, op.cit, pg. 85
[34] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena, pg. 78
[35] Israr Ahmad Khan, Qur`anic Studies: An Introduction, (Kuala Lumpur: Zaman Islam Media, 2000), pg. Introduction
[36] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena, pg. 78
[37] Israr Ahmad Khan, op.cit, pg. 35
[38] Ibid.
[39] Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur’an: Translation and Commentary, (U.S.A: Amana Corporation Maryland, 1983)
[40] Israr Ahmad Khan, op.cit, pg. 35-36
[41] Omar Jah, op.cit, pg. 92-93
[42] Surah al-Baqarah (2): 30-35
[43] Surah al-Maidah (5): 69
[44] Thameem Ushama, Issues in The study of The Qur’an, (Kuala Lumpur: Ilmiah Publisher, 2002), pg. 44-46
[45] W. Montgomery Watt, Islam and Christianity today: A Contribution to Dialogue, (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1991) chap. 4, pg introduction
[46] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena, pg. 6
[47] See subtopic “The Worldview of Islam” of this paper, pg. 5
[48] Adi Setia Mohd Dom, op.cit, pg. 7
[49] Ibid.
[50] W. Montgomery Watt, What Is Islam, pg. 223. See also W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and The Statesman, pg. introduction, see also pg. 19-20.
[51] Ibid, pg. 223
[52] Thameem Ushama, Issues in The Study of The Qur`an, (Kuala Lumpur: Ilmiah Publisher, 2002), pg. 71
[53] Ibid. pg. 73
[54] W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and The Statesman, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948), pg. 15
[55] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena, pg. 6
[56] Israr Ahmad Khan, op.cit, pg. 16
[57] Ibid. pg. 49
[58] W. Montgomery Watt, What Is Islam, pg. 23
[59] Ibid. pg. 46
[60] Ibid.
[61] Muhammad Mohar Ali, op.cit. pg. 216
[62] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena, pg. 4
[63] Ibid.
[64] Israr Ahmad Khan, op.cit, pg. 49
[65] Surah al-Baqarah(2): 135
[66] Muhammad Mohar Ali, op.cit. pg. 454
[67] Israr Ahmad Khan, op.cit, pg. 35
[68] Muhammad Mohar Ali, op.cit. pg. 435
[69] W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), pg. 16
[70] Surah al-Takwir(81): 19
[71] Surah al-Qadr(97): 4, Surah al-Ma’arij(70): 4, Surah al-Naba(78): 38
[72] Surah al-Syu’ara(26): 193
[73] W. Montgomery Watt, What Is Islam, pg. 46
[74] W. Montgomery Watt, What Is Islam, pg. 223. See also pg.42
[75] W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, pg. 61
[76] Surah al-Haqqah(69): 44-46
[77] Israr Ahmad Khan, op.cit, pg. 50
[78] Ibid. pg. 51
[79] Edward W. Said, Orientalism, (New York: Vintage Books, 1929), pg 204.
[80] See topics before
[81] Muhammad Mohar Ali, op.cit. pg. 474
[83] see website : www.alastairmcIntosh.com, An interview with “the Last Orientalist”, op.cit.
[84] Carole Hillenbrand, “article on Professor W. Montgomery Watt”, Edinburgh Middle East Report Online, Winter 2006
[85] ‘Abdullah Ibn Amr reported that the Holy Prophet said: “Allah will not take away knowledge (la yaqbidu al ‘ilma) by taking it away from the servants, but He will take away the learned (wa lakin yaqbidu al-‘ilma bi qabdi al-‘ulama`);
Narrated by Imam Bukhari and Muslim
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